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Mongol Empire

Capital: 1206 AD Avarga / 1235 AD Karakorum / 1260 AD Khanbaliq (Beijing)

History

The Mongol Empire existed during the 13th and 14th centuries and was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, extending northward into parts of the Arctic; eastward and southward into the Indian subcontinent, Mainland Southeast Asia and the Iranian Plateau; and westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.

Territory

Related Wars

Founding of the Mongol Empire and the First Invasion of Jin

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Mongol Conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire

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First Mongol Invasion of Rus and Cumans

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Mongol Conquest of the Jin Dynasty

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Mongol Conquest of the Southern Song

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Second Mongol Invasion of Rus and Europe

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Hulagu's Middle East Campaign and the Fall of Baghdad

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Related Civilizations

Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate was the third Islamic caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was established by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. They overthrew the previous Umayyad Caliphate in the historic Abbasid Revolution. The coup was fueled by widespread dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, who favored Arab Muslims over non-Arab converts. By promising equality for all Muslims regardless of their ethnicity, the Abbasids successfully united various groups and established a new capital in Baghdad, Iraq. Baghdad was designed as a unique, perfectly circular city, often referred to as the Round City, which quickly grew into the cultural and intellectual hub of the medieval world. This era initiated the renowned Islamic Golden Age, a period where science, mathematics, philosophy, literature, and technology flourished dynamically. The caliphs believed that knowledge was the greatest treasure, prompting them to establish the House of Wisdom, a massive library and translation center in Baghdad. Scholars from all over the world, regardless of their religion, gathered here to translate ancient Greek, Persian, Indian, and Chinese texts into Arabic. Through this collective effort, major intellectual breakthroughs were achieved. For instance, the famous mathematician al-Khwarizmi laid the foundations of algebra (a word derived from al-jabr) and his latinized name gave us the word algorithm, which forms the basis of modern computer science. Scholars also accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth, advanced medicine, and introduced paper-making technology from China to the West. A famous legendary figure from this magnificent era is Caliph Harun al-Rashid, whose reign marked the zenith of Abbasid wealth and power. He is prominently featured in the folklore of the One Thousand and One Nights, a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales and magical myths. According to the legends, Harun al-Rashid would frequently disguise himself in the simple clothes of a commoner and roam the night streets of Baghdad alongside his vizier, aiming to witness the true conditions of his subjects and deliver justice directly to those in need. Stories of magical jinns, flying carpets, and hidden caves filled with treasures, such as the adventures of Aladdin and Ali Baba, were inspired by the vibrant, cosmopolitan atmosphere of Baghdad under Abbasid rule. Although the caliphate gradually weakened over centuries and finally came to a tragic end during the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258, its legacy remains one of the most brilliant and peaceful chapters in human intellectual history, leaving behind a wealth of knowledge that helped shape the modern world.

Kingdom of Georgia

The Kingdom of Georgia was a powerful and prosperous medieval kingdom that flourished in the Caucasus region from the 11th to the 13th century. Surrounded by deep valleys and rugged mountains, it possessed a strong natural defense. Under the reign of Tamar the Great, the kingdom reached its golden age of cultural and military strength.

Many fascinating legends are preserved in Georgia. According to the founding legend of its capital, Tbilisi, King Vakhtang was hunting when his falcon fell into a warm hot spring while chasing a pheasant. Impressed by the hot springs, the king founded a city there and named it 'Tbilisi,' which means 'warm place.' Furthermore, Queen Tamar was so deeply revered that folk legends claimed she rode a mythical winged horse at night to defeat her enemies.

However, in 1221, the kingdom faced a severe crisis when the Mongol generals Jebe and Subutai arrived. Although the brave Georgian knights fought fiercely, they were defeated by the Mongols' deceptive tactics, marking the beginning of the kingdom's gradual decline.

Jin Dynasty

The Jin dynasty, officially the Great Jin, was an imperial dynasty of China led by the Jurchen people. It ruled Northern China and Northeast China from 1115 to 1234. Legend has it that the founder, Aguda, chose the name 'Jin' (Gold) because gold is unchanging and pure, unlike iron which rusts. The Jurchens were known for their fierce martial spirit and advanced iron technology before their eventual fall to the rising Mongol Empire.

Khwarazmian Empire

The Khwarazmian Empire was a Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire that ruled large parts of present-day Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran in the approximate period of 1077 to 1231, first as vassals of ...

Kyivan Rus'

Kyivan Rus' was a grand, loose federation of East Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples that flourished from the late 9th to the mid-13th century, encompassing modern-day Ukraine, Belarus, and western Russia. Situated along the major river routes linking the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, it prospered greatly through international trade and cultural exchanges.

Rich legendary stories define the history of Kyivan Rus'. According to the Primary Chronicle, Slavic tribes invited the Varangian (Viking) chieftain Rurik to bring order to their lands. His successor, Oleg, captured Kyiv and proclaimed it the 'mother of all Rus' cities.' Another famous legend surrounds Volodymyr the Great's adoption of Christianity. When his envoys visited Constantinople's Hagia Sophia, they were so awed by the beauty of the service that they reported, 'We knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth.' Captivated by this description, the Grand Prince baptized the entire nation into the Orthodox faith.

During its golden age, Kyivan Rus' established its first legal code, the Russkaya Pravda, and fostered a brilliant Slavic-Byzantine culture. However, succession disputes among local princes gradually fractured the federation. Ultimately, starting with the devastating defeat at the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223, the Mongol invasions shattered the state, leading to the destruction of Kyiv in 1240. Despite its tragic fall, Kyivan Rus' remains the shared cultural and historical ancestor of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.

Mamluk Sultanate

The Mamluk Sultanate was a powerful medieval state that ruled Egypt, Syria, and the western Arabian Peninsula (the Hejaz) from 1250 to 1517. The word Mamluk literally translates to owned, referring to military slaves of Turkic and Kipchak origin who were purchased to serve as elite palace guards and cavalry forces. Renowned for their superb martial skills and strong solidarity, these military slaves eventually revolted against their Ayyubid masters, seized power, and founded their own dynasty in Cairo. Under their rule, Cairo became one of the wealthiest and most populous cities in the world, serving as a vibrant center for Islamic scholarship, trade, and culture. The sultanate played a pivotal role in world history, most notably during the Mongol invasions. In 1260, after sacking Baghdad, the unstoppable Mongol war machine marched toward Egypt. At the Battle of Ain Jalut, the legendary Mamluk general Baibars and Sultan Qutuz employed a feigned retreat tactic to lure the Mongol vanguard into an ambush, scoring a decisive victory. This battle marked the first time a Mongol advance had ever been permanently halted in close combat, saving Cairo from destruction and securing the Islamic holy sites of Mecca and Medina. Baibars, who later became sultan, was celebrated as a hero of Islam. He adopted the lion as his royal crest, stamping it onto coins and bridges. His daring campaigns and combat exploits against both the Mongols and the Crusaders became the source of grand heroic legends and oral folk epics, passed down through generations in the Arab world. Although the sultanate was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, its long military dominance remains a remarkable chapter in Middle Eastern history.

Ming Dynasty

A powerful Han-led empire established by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368 that constructed the Forbidden City and sent Zheng He's treasure fleets across the Indian Ocean.

Song Dynasty

The Song dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. It was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou, ending the ...

Western Xia

The Tangut Empire, known as Western Xia, was a powerful Buddhist empire that ruled Northwest China from 1038 to 1227. Controlling the vital Hexi Corridor, it served as a major cultural and economic bridge on the Silk Road. Legend has it that the Tangut script, one of the most complex in history, was created in a single massive effort by the visionary scholar Iri. The empire's fierce resistance against the Mongols eventually led to Genghis Khan's death during the final siege of their capital.

Related People

A

Abu Sa'id

Last Ilkhan

A

Amir Husayn

Ruler of Transoxiana

Batu Khan

Founder of the Golden Horde and Mongol Prince

B

Bayan

Supreme commander of the Yuan army (1236-1295)

C

Chen Youliang

Rebel leader and founder of the Han regime

D

Dmitry Donskoy

Grand Prince of Moscow

E

Emperor Aizong of Jin

9th and Last Emperor of the Jin Dynasty

Genghis Khan

Founder and First Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

G

Ghazan Khan

Seventh Ilkhan

Hulagu Khan

Founder of the Ilkhanate and commander of the western campaign

J

Jalal al-Din Mingburnu

Last Crown Prince of the Khwarazmian Empire

J

Jebe

Mongol General

J

Jochi

Mongol Prince & Ruler of the Left Wing (Ulus of Jochi)

Kublai Khan

Fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and founder of the Yuan dynasty

Lu Xiufu

Last chancellor of the Southern Song (1236-1279)

M

Mamai

Strongman of the western Golden Horde

Möngke Khan

4th Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (reigned 1251–1259, age at death: 50)

M

Muhammad II of Khwarazm

Sultan of Khwarazmian Empire

Ögedei Khan

Second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

R

Rashid al-Din

Vizier and historian of the Ilkhanate

Subutai

Primary Military Strategist of Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan

T

Timur

Founder of the Timurid Empire

T

Toghon Temür

Last emperor of the Yuan

T

Tokhtamysh

Khan of the Golden Horde

Tolui

Prince and Military Commander of the Mongol Empire

T

Tughlugh Timur

Khan of Moghulistan

Wen Tianxiang

Chancellor of the Southern Song, resistance leader (1236-1283)

X

Xu Da

Commander of the Ming northern expedition

Z

Zhu Yuanzhang

First emperor of the Ming (the Hongwu Emperor)