The era began in 304 AD when Liu Yuan, a leader of the Xiongnu people, founded the state of Han-Zhao. This was at a time when the Western Jin dynasty was weakened by internal power struggles. In 311 and 316 AD, Han-Zhao forces captured the capitals of Luoyang and Chang'an, effectively ending the Western Jin. This pivotal event, known as the 'Disaster of Yongjia', marked a grand victory for the Han-Zhao that signaled a new era, while for the Western Jin, it meant the total collapse of their empire. The north then became an arena where multiple groups established their own states and competed for power.
Following the fall of Han-Zhao, a powerful general named Shi Le established the Later Zhao dynasty in 319 AD. For a time, he managed to unify much of Northern China under his strong military rule. However, after the death of the powerful emperor Shi Hu in 349 AD, the state collapsed into a violent succession crisis. In 350 AD, a Han Chinese general named Ran Min seized power and triggered a massive ethnic conflict. This chaos finally cleared the way for two new major powers to emerge around 351 AD: the Xianbei-led Former Yan in the east and the Di-led Former Qin in the west.
Amidst this fragmentation, Emperor Fu Jian and his brilliant prime minister Wang Meng of the Former Qin dynasty rose to prominence. Together, they governed the people fairly regardless of their ethnicity and built the Former Qin into the most powerful and stable state in the North. In 370 AD, the Qin forces led by Wang Meng defeated their greatest rival, the Former Yan in the east. By 376 AD, with the conquest of Former Liang in the west and the kingdom of Dai in the north, Fu Jian finally achieved the grand task of unifying the entire Northern China for the first time in decades.
However, after Wang Meng’s death, Fu Jian became overly confident. He ignored the warnings that his multi-ethnic empire was not yet fully integrated and began planning a grand campaign to conquer the Eastern Jin in the south. He believed that his army of 870,000 was so vast that they could stop the flow of the Yangtze River just by throwing their whips into it.
In 383 AD, the two powers met at the Fei River. Despite their massive numbers, the Former Qin's brittle coalition of ethnic groups collapsed into a catastrophic rout when a tactical retreat triggered an uncontrollable panic. This single battle erased decades of unification efforts and shattered the Former Qin empire, leading to the rapid rise of new powers in the north.
During the collapse of Former Qin, Murong Chui, a brilliant general and prince of the former Yan royalty, seized the opportunity to restore his clan's glory. In 384 AD, he gathered the Murong people and founded the Later Yan dynasty, which quickly became a major power in the east. This restoration set the stage for a new rivalry between the established Later Yan and a newly rising force from the north: the Northern Wei.
Amidst this renewed chaos, Tuoba Gui, a descendant of the royalty of the state of Dai that had been destroyed by Former Qin, was gathering strength in the far north. Following the collapse of the Qin empire, he rallied his people and successfully restored his clan's territory, founding the Northern Wei dynasty in 386 AD. This marked the birth of the empire that would eventually unify all of Northern China. The Northern Wei steadily built their strength and rose as a formidable rival to the Later Yan, eventually gaining control of the north after a decisive victory at the Battle of Canhe Slope in 395 AD. The ultimate task of unification was finally achieved by Tuoba Gui's grandson, Emperor Taiwu (Tuoba Tao), who conquered the last remaining kingdoms, including the Xia, Northern Yan, and Northern Liang. In 439 AD, the fall of Northern Liang officially brought the 130-year Sixteen Kingdoms period to a close.