Former Shu
History
Former Shu was a state in the Sichuan basin during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, known for its patronage of the arts and stable rule.
Territory
Related Civilizations
Chu
Chu was a state in Hunan during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, known for its control over the tea trade.
Jingnan
Jingnan, also known as Nanping, was the smallest of the Ten Kingdoms, serving as a buffer state between larger neighbors.
Later Han
The Later Han (947–951 AD) holds the distinction of being the shortest-lived of the Five Dynasties in northern China, yet its brief four-year existence was a dramatic microcosm of the era's relentless chaos. The dynasty was founded by Liu Zhiyuan, a seasoned military governor of Shatuo Turk descent who had faithfully served the preceding Later Jin dynasty. When the Later Jin emperor disastrously attempted to break free from the suzerainty of the Khitan Liao Empire, the furious Khitan Emperor Yelü Deguang launched a massive invasion, capturing the capital of Kaifeng and destroying the Later Jin in 947. However, the Khitan occupation of the Central Plains was met with fierce local resistance and logistical nightmares. Unaccustomed to the sweltering southern summer climate and facing continuous guerrilla warfare, Yelü Deguang was forced to abruptly withdraw his forces back to the northern steppes, dying on the journey home. This sudden retreat created a massive power vacuum in the heart of China. Seizing this golden opportunity, Liu Zhiyuan, who had been biding his time and preserving his military strength in his stronghold of Taiyuan, rapidly marched his forces south to the abandoned capital of Kaifeng. Declaring himself emperor, he established the Later Han Dynasty, claiming to be the legitimate continuation of both the Han people and the Shatuo legacy. He sought to quickly restore order by heavily rewarding his veteran generals and attempting to pacify the war-torn provinces. However, fate was cruel; Liu Zhiyuan fell severely ill and died the very next year in 948, leaving his fragile new empire in the hands of his teenage son, Liu Chengyou (Emperor Yin). The young and inexperienced emperor found himself surrounded by powerful, ambitious military commanders whom his father had entrusted with the state's defense. Deeply paranoid and easily manipulated by his close courtiers, Liu Chengyou initiated a bloody purge against these veteran generals to consolidate his absolute power. This paranoid streak proved fatal. When he ordered the execution of the family of his most capable commander, Guo Wei, he ignited a fierce rebellion. Enraged by the senseless slaughter of his loved ones, Guo Wei turned his battle-hardened army toward Kaifeng. In 951, Guo Wei's forces captured the capital, and the young emperor was killed in the chaos. With this, the Later Han was extinguished just four years after it began, replaced by Guo Wei's Later Zhou dynasty. Despite its fleeting lifespan, the Later Han marked the final chapter of Shatuo Turk dominance in the Central Plains and unwittingly set the stage for the rise of Guo Wei and Chai Rong, whose subsequent reforms would finally pave the road for the reunification of China.
Later Jin
The Later Jin (936–947 AD), the third of the Five Dynasties, holds a uniquely infamous place in Chinese history for setting a devastating geopolitical precedent that would haunt the Central Plains for over four hundred years. The dynasty was born out of treachery when Shi Jingtang, a powerful Shatuo Turk general serving the Later Tang, rebelled against his emperor. Facing imminent defeat, Shi Jingtang made a desperate and highly controversial pact with Yelü Deguang, the emperor of the powerful Khitan Liao Dynasty to the north. In exchange for the massive Khitan military intervention that allowed him to destroy the Later Tang and seize the throne, Shi Jingtang agreed to two humiliating conditions. First, despite being ten years older, he formally submitted to the Khitan ruler as a 'Son Emperor' (Erhuangdi), paying vast annual tributes of silk and wealth. Second, and far more disastrously, he permanently ceded the Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun (a region encompassing modern-day Beijing and northern Hebei/Shanxi). This cession handed the Khitans control of the strategic mountain passes and the Great Wall, stripping northern China of its natural geographical defenses and leaving the heartland entirely exposed to nomadic cavalry invasions. As long as Shi Jingtang lived, he obediently maintained this servile relationship, keeping his fragile regime afloat. However, upon his death, his fiercely anti-Khitan nephew and successor, Shi Chonggui, foolishly attempted to assert independence, famously declaring himself a 'Grandson' rather than a 'Vassal' to the Khitan emperor and refusing to pay tribute. Enraged by this insolence, the Khitan Emperor launched a series of brutal, large-scale invasions. Stripped of the Sixteen Prefectures' defenses, the Later Jin army was ultimately outmaneuvered and crushed. In 947, Khitan forces swept into the capital of Kaifeng, captured the emperor, and unceremoniously extinguished the Later Jin dynasty, plunging the region into even deeper turmoil.
Later Liang
The first of the Five Dynasties in northern China, founded by Zhu Wen after the fall of the Tang Dynasty. It controlled the Yellow River valley and was eventually overthrown by the Later Tang.
Later Shu
Later Shu (934–965) was one of the Ten Kingdoms, located in the Sichuan basin. It was known for its economic prosperity and as a center of culture and arts.
Later Tang (Jin)
The Later Tang (923–937 AD) was the second and perhaps the most militarily formidable of the Five Dynasties that ruled northern China during the chaotic 10th century. Its roots traced back to the Shatuo Turks, a nomadic people whose legendary leader, Li Keyong, was famously known as the 'One-Eyed Dragon'. Li Keyong commanded the terrifying 'Raven Army'—a highly disciplined elite cavalry unit clad entirely in black armor that struck absolute fear into the hearts of their enemies. Though Li Keyong spent his life locked in a bitter, unresolved blood feud with Zhu Wen (the founder of the Later Liang), his legacy was fulfilled by his brilliant son, Li Cunxu. A true military prodigy, Li Cunxu led his Shatuo cavalry to completely annihilate the Later Liang in 923. Upon his victory, he declared himself emperor of the Later Tang, boldly claiming to be the legitimate restorer of the fallen Tang Dynasty. Initially, Li Cunxu's reign was glorious, marked by sweeping conquests that temporarily reunited much of northern China and even expanded into the Sichuan basin by conquering the Former Shu. However, the military genius proved to be a disastrous politician. Obsessed with theater and opera, Li Cunxu began performing on stage himself and elevated his favorite actors to high government positions, ignoring the veteran generals who had bled for his empire. This staggering mismanagement alienated his army, leading to a massive mutiny in 926 where he was tragically killed by a stray arrow. Following his death, his adoptive brother, Li Siyuan (Emperor Mingzong), stabilized the empire and ushered in a brief golden age characterized by peaceful borders, agricultural recovery, and the promotion of the printing press. Yet, after Mingzong's death, the Later Tang rapidly descended into a vicious cycle of succession struggles, ultimately falling when a disgruntled general, Shi Jingtang, rebelled and invited a devastating Khitan invasion to destroy his own dynasty.
Later Zhou
The Later Zhou (951–960 AD) was the fifth and final dynasty of the turbulent Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in northern China, yet its brief existence profoundly altered the course of Chinese history. Founded by the Han Chinese general Guo Wei, who seized power through a military coup to topple the short-lived Later Han, the Later Zhou emerged from decades of chaos marked by the rule of Shatuo Turk warlords. Guo Wei, known posthumously as Emperor Taizu, initiated crucial political and economic reforms that began stabilizing the war-torn northern plains. He sought to alleviate the burden on the peasantry, reduced harsh punishments, and began rebuilding the administrative framework that had collapsed after the fall of the Tang Dynasty. However, it was his adopted son and successor, Chai Rong (Emperor Shizong), who transformed the Later Zhou into a formidable military and economic powerhouse. Widely regarded by historians as one of the most capable and visionary monarchs of the era, Chai Rong harbored a grand ambition to conquer the world in thirty years. He systematically reformed the military, establishing a highly disciplined, centralized professional army that pledged loyalty to the state rather than individual generals. Economically, he aggressively promoted agriculture, expanded irrigation, and famously launched a massive campaign to confiscate bronze from Buddhist temples to mint desperately needed currency. Militarily, Chai Rong proved unstoppable. In 954, at the pivotal Battle of Gaoping, he decisively crushed a joint invasion force of the Northern Han and the Khitan Liao Empire, personally charging the enemy lines when his vanguard faltered. He then turned his sights southward, conquering significant territories from the wealthy Southern Tang and Later Shu kingdoms, absorbing their economic resources. He was on the verge of launching a massive northern expedition to reclaim the lost Sixteen Prefectures from the Khitans when he tragically fell ill and died at the age of 38 in 959. He left behind a seven-year-old heir, creating a power vacuum. Less than a year later, his most trusted general, Zhao Kuangyin, was elevated to the throne by his troops in the Chenqiao Mutiny, establishing the Song Dynasty. Zhao Kuangyin inherited the unparalleled military machine and robust economy built by the Later Zhou, allowing him to easily sweep through the remaining Ten Kingdoms and finally reunify China. Thus, while the Later Zhou lasted less than a decade, its visionary leadership and structural reforms were the indispensable bedrock upon which the glorious three-century reign of the Song Dynasty was built.
Liao Dynasty (Khitan)
The Liao Dynasty (916–1125) was a powerful empire founded by the legendary leader Yelü Abaoji of the nomadic Khitan people. Emerging from the vast grass plains of Northeast Asia, the Khitan created a unique empire that successfully blended nomadic horse-riding traditions with the farming culture of China. At its height, the Liao Empire ruled over a massive territory including modern Mongolia, Manchuria, and the strategic Yanyun Sixteen Prefectures of Northern China. A key reason for their success was the Dual Administration System, which allowed the Northern Administration to govern nomads with tribal laws, while the Southern Administration ruled farming populations using traditional Chinese laws. This wise system respected the different lifestyles of its diverse subjects.
The Liao Dynasty is also famous for its deeply rooted Buddhist faith. They built many spectacular temples, grand pagodas, and beautiful Buddhist statues. The empire eventually fell to the rising Jin Dynasty, but their name 'Khitan' became so famous across Eurasia that it became the root of the word 'Cathay,' a term used in many Western languages for centuries to refer to China. A famous legend surrounds the birth of the founder, Yelü Abaoji: it is said that when he was born, the entire room was filled with a mysterious, sweet fragrance and brilliant light, and he could walk immediately as a newborn. Another myth tells of Abaoji shooting down a massive flying divine dragon with a single arrow, symbolizing his divine right to rule the vast steppes.
Min
Min was a state in Fujian during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, established by Wang Shenzhi.
Northern Han
The Northern Han (951–979 AD) was a small but strategically vital state that served as the final holdout of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Liu Min (Liu Chong), the younger brother of the Later Han's founder Liu Zhiyuan, it was established in the rugged highlands of Shanxi after the Later Han fell to Guo Wei's Later Zhou. Despite its limited size and meager resources, Northern Han survived for nearly three decades by acting as a loyal vassal to the powerful Khitan Liao Empire, relying on Khitan cavalry to repel repeated southern invasions. Its capital, Taiyuan, was one of the most formidable fortresses in East Asia, famously resisting several massive sieges. The state was a persistent thorn in the side of both the Later Zhou and the rising Song Dynasty, particularly after its involvement in the Battle of Gaoping. It was only in 979 that Emperor Taizong of Song personally led a massive campaign to finally subdue the kingdom, marking the definitive end of the era of fragmentation and the complete reunification of China under the Song.
Qi
Qi was a state in northwestern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, ruled by Li Maozhen.
Song Dynasty
The Song dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. It was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou, ending the ...
Southern Han
The Southern Han (917–971) was a prominent maritime state during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, ruling over the modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi provinces. It was founded by Liu Yan, who capitalized on the foundation laid by his brother Liu Yin, a former Tang Jiedushi. With its capital at Guangzhou (Panyu), Liu Yan declared himself emperor, initially naming the state 'Great Yue' before changing it to 'Great Han' to claim legitimate descent from the ancient Han Dynasty.
Geographically positioned along the southern coast, Southern Han flourished as a global hub for maritime trade. Guangzhou was a bustling international port frequented by Arab and Southeast Asian merchants, dealing in luxury goods such as ivory, rhino horns, and peacock feathers. The state also controlled a lucrative pearl-diving industry, known as the 'Glistening Pools,' which generated immense wealth. This prosperity allowed the emperors to construct lavish palaces adorned with gold and pearls, though it also led to a culture of extreme extravagance.
The governance of Southern Han was uniquely characterized by its heavy reliance on eunuchs. Mistrusting traditional scholars, the emperors mandated that many officials be castrated to ensure their loyalty; at its peak, the administration reportedly employed over 20,000 eunuchs. While economically successful, the state was also notorious for the cruelty of its rulers and the implementation of horrific punishments. Internal decay eventually weakened the state, leading to its conquest by the rising Song Dynasty in 971. A popular legend tells of the last emperor, Liu Chang, who prepared a fleet filled with treasures to escape, only to have his trusted eunuchs steal the jewels and leave him behind to face the Song army.
Southern Tang
Southern Tang (937–976) was the most successful and influential of the Ten Kingdoms, known for its refined culture and as a successor to the Tang Dynasty's legacy.
Tang Dynasty
The Tang dynasty is often considered the golden age of Chinese civilization. It was a cosmopolitan empire where different cultures and religions met along the Silk Road. Legend says the Tang emperors were descendants of the founder of Taoism, Laozi. This era saw the height of Chinese poetry with masters like Li Bai and Du Fu. The famous 'Journey to the West' (Sun Wukong) is based on the pilgrimage of the monk Xuanzang to India during the Tang dynasty. Its capital, Chang'an, was the most populous and advanced city in the world at the time.
Wu
Wu, also known as Huainan or Yang Wu, was one of the major kingdoms in southern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Wuyue
Wuyue was an independent coastal kingdom during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, known for its economic prosperity and cultural achievements.
